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The Tohono O’odham (, or )〔 〕 are a group of Native Americans who reside primarily in the Sonoran Desert of eastern Arizona and northwestern Mexico. "Tohono O’odham" means "Desert People". The governmental entity for the tribe is the Tohono O'odham Nation. Although the Tohono O’odham were previously known as the Papago, (meaning "tepary-bean eater"), they have largely rejected this name. It was applied to them by conquistadores who had heard them called this by other Piman bands that were very competitive with the Tohono O’odham. The term Papago derives from ''Ba:bawĭkoʼa'', meaning "eating tepary beans." That word was pronounced ''papago'' by the Spanish. The Tohono O'odham Nation, or Tohono O’odham Indian Reservation, is located in southern Arizona, encompassing portions of Pima County, Pinal County, and Maricopa County. ==Culture== The Tohono O’odham share linguistic and cultural roots with the closely related Akimel O'odham (People of the River), whose lands lie just south of Phoenix, along the lower Gila River. The Sobaipuri are ancestors to both the Tohono O’odham and the Akimel O’odham who resided along the major rivers of southern Arizona. Ancient pictographs adorn a rock wall that juts up out of the desert near the Baboquivari Mountains. Debates surround the origins of the O’odham. Claims that the O’odham moved north as recently as 300 years ago compete with claims that the Hohokam, who left the Casa Grande Ruins, are their ancestors. Recent research on the Sobaipuri, now extinct relatives of the O'odham, shows that they were present in sizable numbers in the southern Arizona river valleys in the fifteenth century. In the Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library are materials that a Franciscan friar who worked among the Tohono O'odham collected, including scholarly volumes and monographs.〔Kiernan F. McCarthy OFM Collection, Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library http://www.sbmal.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/SBMAL_McCarty.pdf〕 Historically, the O'odham-speaking peoples were at odds with Apaches from the late seventeenth until the beginning of the twentieth centuries when conflict with European settlers caused both the O'odham and the Apaches to reconsider their common interests. It is noteworthy that the O'odham word for the Apache 'enemy' is ''ob''. Still there is considerable evidence that suggests that the O'odham and Apache were friendly and engaged in exchange of goods and marriage partners before the late seventeenth century. O'odham history, however, suggest the constant raids between the two tribes caused the intermarriages, resulting in a mixed tribe of two enemies. Many women and children were taken as slaves between the two tribes, one way a woman could survive in the tribe she was taken into, would be to intermarry and learn the ways and customs of her captors, thus resulting in intermarriage and children of mixed tribal descent. O'odham musical and dance activities lack "grand ritual paraphernalia that call for attention" and grand ceremonies such as Pow-wows. Instead, they wear muted white clay. O'odham songs are accompanied by hard wood rasps and drumming on overturned baskets, both of which lack resonance and are "swallowed by the desert floor". Dancing features skipping and shuffling quietly in bare feet on dry dirt, the dust raised being believed to rise to atmosphere and assist in forming rain clouds.〔Zepeda, Ofelia (1995). ''Ocean Power: Poems from the Desert'', p.89. ISBN 0-8165-1541-7.〕 The original O'odham diet consisted of regionally available wild game, insects, and plants. Through foraging, O'odham ate a variety of regional plants, such as: ironwood seed, honey mesquite, hog potato, and organ-pipe cactus fruit. While the Southwestern United States did not have an ideal climate for cultivating crops, O'odham were able to grow crops of white tepary beans, Papago peas, and Spanish watermelons. Pronghorn Antelope, hornworm larvae, and pack rats were amongst the sources of meat. Desert foodways included steaming plants in pits and roasting meat on an open fire.〔Nebhan, Gary Paul (1997). "Cultures of Habitat: On Nature, Culture, and Story", p.197-206.〕 The San Xavier District is the location of a major tourist attraction near Tucson, Mission San Xavier del Bac, the "White Dove of the Desert," founded in 1700 by the Jesuit missionary and explorer Eusebio Kino, with the current church building constructed by the Tohono O'odham and Franciscan priests during a period extending from 1783 to 1797. It is one of many missions built in the southwest by the Spanish on their then-northern frontier. The beauty of the mission often leads tourists to presume that the desert people embraced the Catholicism of the Spanish conquistadors. In fact, Tohono O'odham villages had resisted change for hundreds of years. During the 1660s and in 1750s, two major rebellions rivaled in scale the 1680 Pueblo Rebellion. Armed resistance prevented increased Spanish incursions on the lands of Pimería Alta. The Spanish retreated to what they called "Pimería Baja." As a result, much of the desert people's traditions remained largely intact for generations. It was not until Americans of Anglo-European ancestry began moving into the Arizona territory that traditional ways consistently were oppressed. Indian boarding schools, the cotton industry, and U.S. Federal Indian policy worked hand-in-glove to promote assimilation of these tribe members into the American mainstream. The structure of the current tribal government, established in the 1930s, is a direct result of commercial, missionary, and federal collaboration. The goal was to make the Indians into "real" Americans, yet the boarding schools offered only so much training as was considered necessary for the Indians to work as migrant workers or housekeepers.〔Banks, Dennis & Yuri Morita (1993).Seinaru Tamashii: Gendai American Indian Shidousha no Hansei, Japan, Asahi Bunko.〕 "Assimilation" was the official policy, but full participation was not the goal. Boarding school students were supposed to function within the segregated society of the United States as economic laborers, not leaders.〔by official internet site of "the American Indian Heritage Support Center"〕 Despite a hundred years of being told to and made to change, the Tohono O'odham have retained their traditions into the twenty-first century, and their language is still spoken. Recent decades, however, increasingly have eroded O'odham traditions in the face of the surrounding environment of American mass culture. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Tohono O'odham people」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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